Introduction of schooling in the world
A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is sometimes compulsory. In these systems, students progress through a series of schools. The names for these schools vary by country (discussed in the Regional terms section below) but generally include primary school for young children and secondary school for teenagers who have completed primary education. An institution where higher education is taught is commonly called a university college or university. In addition to these core schools, students in a given country may also attend schools before and after primary (elementary in the U.S.) and secondary (middle school in the U.S.) education. Kindergarten or preschool provide some schooling to very young children (typically ages 3–5). University, vocational school, college or seminary may be available after secondary school. A school may be dedicated to one particular field, such as a school of economics or dance. Alternative schools may provide non-traditional curriculum and methods. Non-government schools, also known as private schools, may be required when the government does not supply adequate or specific educational needs. Other private schools can also be religious, such as Christian schools, gurukula (Hindu schools), madrasa (Arabic schools), hawzas (Shi'i Muslim schools), yeshivas (Jewish schools), and others or schools that have a higher standard of education or seek to foster other personal achievements. Schools for adults include institutions of corporate training, military education and training and business schools. Critics of school often accuse the school system of failing to adequately prepare students for their future lives, of encouraging certain temperaments while inhibiting others, of prescribing students exactly what to do, how, when, where and with whom, which would suppress creativity, and of using extrinsic measures such as grades and homework, which would inhibit children's natural curiosity and desire to learn. In homeschooling and distance education, teaching and learning take place independent from the institution of school or in a virtual school outside a traditional school building, respectively. Schools are organized in several different organizational models, including departmental, small learning communities, academies, integrated, and schools-within-a-school
History and development
Horace Mann is considered as the inventor of the concept of school. He was born in 1796 and later became Secretary of Education in Massachusetts. He was a pioneer in bringing educational reforms into society. He believed that public education where students would follow a curriculum was necessary to impart education in an organized way. He also stressed 5 that the aim of education must be character and civic virtue rather than learning to advance society. Mann's method of education soon became popular and was adopted by other states. However, it was not until 1918 that students had to complete their elementary education. Mann is also known as the 'Father of Modern Education.' The concept of grouping students together in a centralized location for learning has existed since Classical antiquity. Formal schools have existed at least since ancient Greece (see Academy), ancient Rome (see Education in Ancient Rome) ancient India (see Gurukul), and ancient China (see History of education in China). The Byzantine Empire had an established schooling system beginning at the primary level. According to Traditions and Encounters, the founding of the primary education system began in 425 AD and "... military personnel usually had at least a primary education ...” The sometimes efficient and often large government of the Empire meant that educated citizens were a must. Although Byzantium lost much of the grandeur of Roman culture and extravagance in the process of surviving, the Empire emphasized efficiency in its war manuals. The Byzantine education system continued until the empire's collapse in 1453 AD.[11] In Western Europe, a considerable number of cathedral schools were founded during the Early Middle Ages in order to teach future clergy and administrators, with the oldest still existing, and continuously operated, cathedral schools being The King's School, Canterbury (established 597 CE), King's School, Rochester (established 604 CE), St Peter's School, York (established 627 CE) and Thetford Grammar School (established 631 CE). Beginning in the 5th century CE, monastic schools were also established throughout Western Europe, teaching religious and secular subjects.
Islam was another culture that developed a school system in the modern sense of the word.
Emphasis was put on knowledge, which required a systematic way of teaching and spreading
knowledge and purpose-built structures. At first, mosques combined religious performance
and learning activities. However, by the 9th century, the madrassa was introduced, a school
that was built independently from the mosque, such as al-Qarawiyyin, founded in 859 CE.
They were also the first to make the Madrassa system a public domain under Caliph's
control.
Under the Ottomans, the towns of Bursa and Edirne became the main centres of learning. The
Ottoman system of Külliye, a building complex containing a mosque, a hospital, madrassa,
and public kitchen and dining areas, revolutionized the education system, making learning
accessible to a broader public through its free meals, health care, and sometimes free
accommodation.
One-room school in 1935, Alabama
6
In Europe, universities emerged during the 12th century; here, scholasticism was an
important tool, and the academicians were called schoolmen. During the middle Ages and
much of the Early Modern period, the main purpose of schools
was to teach the Latin language. This led to the term grammar school, which in the United
States informally refers to a primary school, but in the United Kingdom means a school that
selects entrants based on ability or aptitude. The school curriculum has gradually broadened
to include literacy in the vernacular language and technical, artistic, scientific, and practical
subjects.
Mental Calculations. In the school of S.Rachinsky by Nikolay Bogdanov-Belsky. Russia,
1895.
Obligatory school attendance became common in parts of Europe during the 18th century.
In Denmark-Norway, this was introduced as early as in 1739–1741, the primary end being to
increase the literacy of the almue, i.e., the "regular people".[12] Many of the earlier public
schools in the United States and elsewhere were one-room schools where a single teacher
taught seven grades of boys and girls in the same classroom. Beginning in the 1920s,
one-room schools were consolidated into multiple classroom facilities with transportation
increasingly provided by kid hacks and school buses
Why Was School Created?
Why was school created? We're sure that's a question that every student asks from time to time. Especially on tough test days, many students WONDER exactly why they're being subjected to such cruel and unusual punishment! If you're honest with yourself, though, you know what a great place school is. You have fun, learn all sorts of interesting things, and get to spend quality time with your friends. Sure, tests can be stressful, but think of how boring life would be if you didn't get to learn new things and see other people so often! Schools are not a new invention. You may have seen some old one-room schoolhouses that have been around for a couple hundred years or more. The earliest schools, though, date back thousands of years! In fact, education dates back to the very first humans ever to inhabit Earth. Why? To survive, every generation has found it necessary to pass on its accumulated knowledge, skills, values, and traditions to the next generation. How can they do this? Education! Each subsequent generation must be taught these things. The earliest human beings didn't need schools to pass along information. They educated youngsters on an individual basis within the family unit. Over time, however, populations grew and societies formed. Rather than every family being individually responsible for education, people soon figured out that it would be easier and more efficient to have a small group of adults teach a larger group of children. In this way, the concept of the school was born. Ancient schools weren't like the schools we know today, though. The earliest schools often focused more on teaching skills and passing along religious values, rather than teaching specific subject areas like is common today. In the United States, the first schools began in the 13 original colonies in the 17th century. For example, Boston Latin School, which was founded in 1635, was the first public school and the oldest existing school in the country. The earliest schools focused on reading, writing, and mathematics. The New England colonies led the way in requiring towns to set up schools. The Massachusetts Bay Colony made basic education a requirement in 1642. However, many of the earliest schools were only for boys, and there were usually few, if any, options for girls. After the American Revolution, education became a higher priority. States quickly began to establish public schools. School systems were not uniform, however, and would often vary greatly from state to state. Credit for our modern version of the school system usually goes to Horace Mann. When he became Secretary of Education in Massachusetts in 1837, he set forth his vision for a system 23 of professional teachers who would teach students an organized curriculum of basic content. For this reason, Mann is often called the “Father of the Common School Movement." Many other states quickly followed Mann's system he instituted in Massachusetts. More and more states began to require school attendance. By 1918, every state required students to complete elementary school. Educational improvements grew by leaps and bounds during the 20th century, leading to the advanced systems we enjoy today.
The Gurukul system of Education
The Gurukul was a type of school in ancient education system. The gurukul system is an
ancient learning method. Gurukulam has existed since the Vedic age. Their main motto is to
develop the knowledge and they were highly focused on education. The Gurus train their
students with meditations, yoga’s and other standards.
The students will gather there and learn vedas from their Guru. The students were treated
equally irrespective of their social standards. The students were treated as a part of Guru
families. The Guru refers to the master or a teacher. The gurukulam system gained a new
tradition known as Guru-shishya tradition. The teacher is called as a Guru and the students
are called as Shisyas.
Main Objectives:-
The main objectives of the gurukul system are
Self control
Character development
Social awareness
Personality development
7 Intellectual development
Spiritual development
Preservation of knowledge & culture
Students were divided into three categories like
(a) Vasu- Those obtaining education up to the age of 24.
(b) Rudra- Those obtaining education up to the age of 36.
(c) Aaditya- Those obtaining education up to the age of 48.
The gurukul system was the only education system known at the time. The students gained
their education with the in-depth knowledge. Not only the education but also they had been
taught essential aspects for their cultured and disciplined life. The Shisyas lived under the
gurukul roof with the good brotherhood and there was a good humanity, love and discipline.
The Gurukhul is a comprehensive learning center where the students are taught good habits
of respecting the elders, mother, father & teachers. On the whole, the ancient system gained a
huge respect with this Gurukulam system.
The education system of Madrasas
The Medina mosque, built in the 7th century by the Prophet Mohammed, is
considered to be the first educational institution of the Muslim world. During this era,
mosques served as the primary environments for learning. However, as societies evolved,
learning circles expanded to include royal settings, as well as informal gatherings in market
places. By the Abbasid period (750 - 13th century), religious education assumed a certain
significance. It was not uncommon for some educators to specialize in the teachings of the
Qur’an, theology, and law, while the emphasis for others was on history, the Arabic
language, and literature. Learning circles and study groups gradually increased in number,
serving as the foundation of what were to become “madrasas”, or colleges, intended for
adults who had completed their primary education in mosques or private schools. During the
10th century, madrasas emerged as independent institutions, distinct from mosques, which
helped to create a new type of educational system. As a result, these madrasas became
centers for religious and secular learning, as well as places where officials were educated
according to Muslim orthodoxy. Documentary evidence and architectural remnants trace the 8
origin of these madrasas to Khurasan and Transoxania in the 10th century, as well as in the
region now known as northern Iran.
Educational stratification was the direct result of the emergence of these madrasas.
They provided higher religious and secular education, while elementary education was
provided by the “maktabs”. It was during this era that the term “madrasa-mosque”, prevalent
in the Middle Ages, was pervasive, thus reinforcing mosques’ positioning as important social,
educational, and cultural centers along the Silk Roads. In addition, madrasas containing
libraries appeared in Bukhara, Khwarazm, Merv, Ghazna, and Nishapur between the 10th and
12th centuries. There was a tendency to build architectural ensembles that often included a
mosque, a madrasa, a mausoleum, and public “garmabs” (baths), at major urban sites.
Despite the 13th-century Mongol invasion, which severely destabilized learning, thereby
disrupting the continuity of culture and creativity, madrasas continued to be the highest form
of educational institution, spreading throughout the eastern Caliphate in the 15th century and
16th centuries. After the successful introduction of monetary reform under the Mongols,
economic life soon revived throughout modern-day Iran and Transoxania. Moreover,
madrasas were also established on the Indian subcontinent as early as the thirteenth century.
An example is the madrasa at Gwalior, whose architectural structure resembles that of some
Buddhist “viharas” (monasteries). During this period of cultural renaissance, madrasas
underwent significant changes, with preference given to its organizational role as a promoter
of scientific and literary thought.
Although subject to periods of growth and decline, madrasas flourished and were considered
universal centers of education and intercultural exchange amongst diverse populations. They
provided a range of curricula including theology, science, history, and philosophy, as well as
language, literature, philology, music, and the teaching of “adab”, or polite culture. Leading
scholars recognized that the secular sciences would ensure the dynamic development of
society. These teachings would later be challenged in medieval times, subjected to strict
Islamic theological traditions. However, during this period, madrasas in Samarkand and Herat
were highly-esteemed cultural centers for science, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.
An example is Samarkand’s renowned 15th century Ulugh Beg madrasa in the Registan
square for scholars such as Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid and Qadizada Rumi. Furthermore,
madrasas were established for the specialization of medicine in Herat. Madrasas such as
these were not only centers for education and culture, but they also housed the poor,
especially “mustahiqqs” (students), who received room and board during their studies,
eventually sharing their knowledge and expertise with future generations. Over time,
madrasas that first appeared along the Silk Roads in Bagdad continued to flourish, spreading
throughout the current eastern Chinese regions and beyond.
Schooling in India
In ancient India, schools were in the form of Gurukuls. Gurukuls were traditional Hindu residential learning schools, typically the teacher's house or a monastery. Schools today are commonly known by the Sanskrit terms Vidyashram, Vidyalayam, Vidya Mandir, Vidya Bhavan in India. In southern languages, it is known as Pallikoodam or PaadaSaalai. During the Mughal rule, Madrasahs were introduced in India to educate the children of Muslim parents. British 9 records show that indigenous education was widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque, or village in most regions. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science, and Religion. Under British rule, Christian missionaries from England, the United States, and other countries established missionary and boarding schools in India. Later as these schools gained popularity, more were started, and some gained prestige. These schools marked the beginning of modern schooling in India. The syllabus and calendar they followed became the benchmark for schools in modern India. Today most schools follow the missionary school model for tutoring, subject/syllabus, and governance, with minor changes. Schools in India range from large campuses with thousands of students and hefty fees to schools where children are taught under a tree with a small / no campus and are free of cost. There are various boards of schools in India, namely Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), Madrasa Boards of various states, Matriculation Boards of various states, State Boards of various boards, Anglo Indian Board, among others. Today's typical syllabus includes Language(s), Mathematics, Science – Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geography, History, General Knowledge, and Information Technology/Computer Science. Extracurricular activities include physical education/sports and cultural activities like music, choreography, painting, and theatre/drama.
Schooling in Europe
Albert Bettannier's 1887 painting La Tache noire depicts a child being taught about the "lost" province of Alsace-Lorraine in the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War – an example of how European schools were often used in order to inoculate Nationalism in their pupils.Chemistry lesson at a German Gymnasium, Born, 1988 In much of continental Europe, the term school usually applies to primary education, with primary schools that last between four and nine years, depending on the country. It also applies to secondary education, with secondary schools often divided between Gymnasiums and vocational schools, which again, depending on country and type of school, educate students for between three and six years. In Germany, students graduating from Grundschule are not allowed to progress into a vocational school directly. Instead, they are supposed to proceed to one of Germany's general education schools such as Gesamtschule, Hauptschule, Realschule or Gymnasium. When they leave that school, which usually happens at age 15–19, they may proceed to a vocational school. The term school is rarely used for tertiary education, except for some upper or high schools (German: Hochschule), which describe colleges and universities. In Eastern Europe modern schools (after World War II), of both primary and secondary educations, often are combined. In contrast, secondary education might be split into accomplished or not. The schools are classified as middle schools of general education. For the technical purposes, they include "degrees" of the education they provide out of three available: the first – primary, the second – unaccomplished secondary, and the third – accomplished secondary. Usually, the first two degrees of education (eight years) are always included. In contrast, the last one (two years) permits the students to pursue vocational or specialized educations
Schooling in North America and the United States
In North America, the term school can refer to any educational institution at any level and covers all of the following: preschool (for toddlers), kindergarten, elementary school, middle school (also called intermediate school or junior high school, depending on specific age groups and geographic region), high school (or in some cases senior high school), college, university, and graduate school. In the United States, school performance through high school is monitored by each state's department of education. Charter schools are publicly funded elementary or secondary schools that have been freed from some of the rules, regulations, and statutes that apply to other public schools. The terms grammar school and grade school are sometimes[why?] used to refer to a primary school. In addition, there are tax-funded magnet schools which offer different programs and instruction not available in traditional schools
Schooling in Africa
In West Africa, "school" can also refer to "bush" schools, Quranic schools, or apprenticeships. These schools include formal and informal learning. Bush schools are training camps that pass down cultural skills, traditions, and knowledge to their students. Bush schools are semi-similar to traditional western schools because they are separated from the larger community. These schools are located in forests outside of the towns and villages, and the space used is solely for these schools. Once the students have arrived in the forest, they cannot leave until their training is complete. Visitors are prohibited from these areas.[15] Instead of being separated by age, Bush schools are separated by gender. Women and girls cannot enter the boys' bush school territory and vice versa. Boys receive training in cultural crafts, fighting, hunting, and community laws among other subjects.[16] Girls are trained in their own version of the boys' bush school. They practice domestic affairs such as cooking, childcare, and being a good wife. Their training is focused on how to be a proper woman by societal standards. Qur'anic schools are the principal way of teaching the Quran and knowledge of the Islamic faith. These schools also fostered literacy and writing during the time of colonization. Today, the emphasis is on the different levels of reading, memorizing, and reciting the Quran. Attending a Qur'anic school is how children become recognized members of the Islamic faith. Children often attend state schools and a Qur'anic school. In Mozambique, specifically, there are two kinds of Qur'anic schools. They are the tariqa based and the Wahhabi-based schools. What makes these schools different is who controls them. Tariqa schools are controlled at the local level. In contrast, the Wahhabi are controlled by the Islamic Council.[17] Within the Qur'anic school system, there are levels of education. They range from a basic level of understanding, called chuo and kioni in local languages, to the most advanced, which is called ilimu.[18] In Nigeria, the term school broadly covers daycares, nursery schools, primary schools, secondary schools and tertiary institutions. Primary and secondary schools are either privately funded by religious institutions and corporate organisations or government-funded. Government-funded schools are commonly referred to as public schools. Students spend six years in primary school, three years in junior secondary school, and three years in senior secondary school. The first nine years of formal schooling is compulsory under the Universal Basic Education Program (UBEC).[19] Tertiary institutions include public and private universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education. Universities can be funded by the 11 federal government, state governments, religious institutions, or individuals and organisations.
SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF DIFFERENT LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
While trying to understand what constitutes the meaning or concept of education, you must have noticed that the concept' of education has been perceived differently by different scholars. Similarly, education b n has been characterized differently by different viewpoints. One such characterization about the concept of education is that education is a social action or a social process. It operates in various social spaces. One may ascribe to this operation as the human socialisation. In this sense, education is a socialisation process. As you know, human learning mostly takes place in a learning environment, although some kinds of human learning taking place during infancy are linked to biological impulses. Hence, education of a child, in a broader sense, starts from the family or home, which is the first social environment space for him/her. From a natural learning environment like the family, a child moves to a contrived social environment or space like the school. Here he spends a substantial time of his formative period. Once he/she is out of contrived social environment and enters the world of work, he/she as an adult who still continues to educate himself through many semi-contrived learning environments. Based on these three different kinds of learning environments, educationists have broadly classified education into three forums of education: informal, formal and non-formal. Let us discuss these three forms of education in greater detail.
Informal Education
Informal education, as the phrase itself indicates, takes place in any kind of informal learning environment. There is no formality attached to such education. This form of education is the most primitive form of education and the most broad-based in its nature and scope. As we have already stated, the first social environment for informal education is the family or home of a child. He learns a lot of life skills, attitudes, social manners and knowledge of his immediate world through his interaction with family members like mother, father, brothers, sisters and others. In this way, the family becomes a launchiftg pad for child's future education. In earlier times, the family also used to provide the children skills that are necessary to earn a livelihood. Even now, in rural areas and tribal societies, the children are indoctrinated into the family profession. But with the advent of industrialisation and the emergence of alternative modes of living, this role of family has substantially decreased as most family professions fail to provide the children a decent livelihood. Beyond the framework of family, a child acquires a lot of knowledge or skills from a host of informal agencies of education. The child's peer groups, neighbourhood, the village community, market places and so on. All these informal agencies help in socialisation of the child. A child also gets a number of learning experiences through his/her interaction with different kinds of environmental situations he/she encounters every day. A child who has cut his finger with a blade knows that he/she should use the blade carefully. Such experiences are not consciously provided by any informal agencies, but acquired by the child through his interaction in the environment. This is also a kind of informal education, although more appropriately called 'incidental learning or education'. But, 40 many learning experiences gather eel from interaction with the environment may be undeu~rable; hence they cannot be 12 recognised as educational. For example, a child's taking to smoking under peer pressure may not be considered as an educational experience.-Apart from family, neighbourhood and peergroups, a child learns from a variety of informal agencies, which provide learning experiences in informal eilvi ronments. Agencies like television, radio, films, newspapers, magazines, books of readings, etc. dl help in the process of socialisation of the child. But learning experiences are not purposefully designed. However, when a child interacts with such agencies, he/she acquires a lot of learning experiences, which are, educative.
Based on our- discussions so far we may characterise informal education as follows:
The above characteristics of informal education can be summarised in the following
paragraph:
"Informal education: The truly lifelong process whereby every individual acquires
attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from daily experience and the educative
influences and resources in his or her environment from family and neighbours, from
work and play, from the market place, the library and the mass media".
(Coombs, Processor and Ahmed, 1973)
In conclusion, we can say that informal education operates in a broad and wide social
space. One cannot define its operation in a narrow and limited organised social
environment. Although its operation is not aimed at achieving any explicit objectives
of education, there are objectives of education implicit in the entire process of
informal education. It is the most primitive and happening form of education.
Since time immemorial, informal education has been the natural form of imparting ,
education or socialisation of human beings. As knowledge pertaining to different
types I of social operation grew and became complex in nature, informal ways of
socialising and educating human beings seemed to be inadequate. Hence, society
thought of prevailing learning experiences in an organised way in a controlled
environment rather than in an uncontrolled environment as happens in an informal
education context. Such realisation by the society led to the idea of setting up a
structured and organised learning environment In the form of formal education. Let us
discuss the nature of formal education in detail.
Formal Education
The inadequacy of informal education in catering to the transmission of the ever growing
body of knowledge to the future members of the society gave rise to formal education.
Hence, the primary objective of formal education is to transmit the knowledge, skills,
attitudes, beliefs, etc. preserved and propagated by a society. In order that transmission of
societal knowledge takes place, education must be formalised and co-ordinated by an agency
like the State, keeping in focus the broad societal aims. Hence, it is the responsibility of the
State to cany out this function through its designated 41 Concept and Nature agencies like
school, college, or university. .Against this backdrop, let us examine the of Education
definition of formal education.
"Formal education: The hierarchically structured, chronologically graded education system,
running fmm primary school through the university and including, in addition to general
academic studies, a variety of speciaIised.programmes and institutions for full-time technical
and professional training".
(Coombs, Processor and Ahmed, 1973)
From the above definition, it is apparent that learning experiences provided through formal
education are vertically and horizontally structured. Vertically, formal education starts from
primary school to secondary education and university education and horizontally, to run
through general academic studies, technical, vocational and professional studies. Let us
discuss various aspects of formal educatio
Aspects of Formal Education
By now, you should be clear about what formal education is and what its various aspects are. Although formal education has become an inevitable part of what constitutes the 'education' of a human being, it also /suffers from inadequacies to meet the growing demand for education. Therefore, non-formal education emerged out of the inadequacies of formal education to meet the ever-increasing demand for education. Let us discuss non-formal education.
Non-formal Education
The genesis of non-formal education is traced back to the 1960's and 1970's. During this
period, there was concern about unsuitable curricula; a realisation that educational growth
and economic growth were not necessarily in step, and that jobs did not emerge directly as a
result of educational inputs. Many countries were finding it difficult (politically or
economically) to pay for the expansion of formal education. (Smith, 2004) The above
development reflected that formal education systems could not cope up with the socio economic changes around them. Secondly, UNESCO in its landmark report of the
International Education Commission, 1972 'Learning to be', propagated the idea of lifelong
education and the learning society. Third, the idea of 'de schooling' which was launched by
the great American educationist Ivan Ilich also pointed to the redundancy of the formal
education system like the school to meet the learning requirements of human beings.
All these developments contributed to the emergence of non-formal education system
throughout the world. Although these were western developments, many socialist countries
like Russia, Cuba, Tanzania, Somalia and Nicaragua were using successful mass campaigns
for literacy, which may be labelled as non-formal education.
Having seen the genesis of non-formal education, we shall try to understand its meaning and
characteristic features. Non-formal education has a lot of resemblances with formal
education, but differs from it in certain aspects. Let us study the following definition.
"Non-formal education: any organised educational activity outside the established formal
system - whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity that
is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives".
From the above definition, it is clear that non-formal education, like formal education, is an
organised activity, which takes place outside the formal educational structure. It also intends
to achieve pre-determined educational objectives. But, unlike formal education, non-formal
education always caters to the learning need of a specific target group. In a country, one can
find a number of initiatives and programmes, which are non-formal by nature. In India, adult
education programmes, basic education programmes, literacy programmes, health awareness
programme, programmes meant for school drop outs, agricultural extension programmes and
the like constitute non-formal education programmes. Let's discuss certain characteristic
features of non-formal education.
15
i) Goals and Objectives: Non-formal education programmes are always
conceptualised to achieve short-term and special educational goals and objectives.
For example, in any kind of literacy programme, the objective is only to achieve
literacy among the illiterates and the programme is geared towards the achievement
of that objective only.
ii) Timing: Non-formal education programmes are generally run for a short period on a
part-time and recurrent basis. For example, agricultural extension programmes are
short-term programmes but are provided again and again to the farmers.
iii) Curricular Experiences: Curricular experiences are generally formulated keeping in
mind the specific needs of the target group. These are more individualised rather than
broad-based and general in nature. For example, programmes meant for village level
health workers contain specific information pertaining to health care in the context of
village environment. Scope of Education.
iv) Teaching-Learning Process: The teaching-learning process is generally learner
oriented and flexible in nature. Transaction of learning experiences is centred around
community resources. 43 Concepts and Nature of Education.
v) Administrative Mechanism: It is self-governing and democratic in nature. Activities
in non-formal education programmes are mostly organised keeping in mind the
convenience of the organisers as well as the learners.
vi) Assessment of Learning Objectives: Like formal education, measures are also
taken to carry out both formative and summative assessment by mid-term review and
final review.
Non-formal Education in India
In the west, NFE refers to all kinds of out-of-school activities, namely, adult and continuing education, agricultural extension activities, skill-based vocational programmes and such other professional programmes. On the other hand, the Indian view of NFE refers to a programme of part-time education designed to meet the educational needs of children who, for various reasons, cannot enrol in the regular, formal and full time schooling and dropped out of its without completing the prescribed years of education. (Dasgupta, 2004). In India, it started during the latter part of the 1970s with the objective of providing education to all children in the age group of 6- 14 for achieving the goal of a Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE). The nomenclature of NFE emerged in 1977-78 with the launch of the centrally sponsored scheme of NFE by the Ministry of Human Resources Development and Social Welfare in nine educationally backward states of India. Prior to that, there were certain developments in the regard. The Education Commission (1964-66) explored the potentialities of part-time education & widening the access to primary education. In 1947, the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) emphasized, "The goal of universal education cannot be realized through exclusive reliance on the formal system of education with its single point entry, sequential character, and full-time professional teachers". All this observation led the Working Group Meeting of the Planning Commission to emphasize in 1977 the identification of viable alternative part-time educational designs, widening access to education for all children in the age group of 6- 14 years who failed to avail of full time schooling facilities. The National Policy Education (1986) also stressed the importance of non-formed education. It stated, “a large and systematic programme of Non-formal education will be launched for school drop-outs, for children from habitations without schools, working children, children and girls who cannot attend whole day school". The Programme of Action (1986) further stated that efforts would be made to evolve different models of NFE programmes and 16 agencies implementing the program will be encouraged to evolve and adopt the most suitable model depending upon the requirements of the target groups. (GOI, 1986). In 1987, the NFE scheme was received and expanded to 10 educationally backward states (including Arunachal Pradesh) and to educationally backward pockets of all others states and union territories. When the Alternative Schooling Programme was launched under the World Bank Sponsored District Primary Education Programme (DPEP), the NFE scheme was overhauled. In 2001, the NFE scheme was replaced by the Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Scheme (EGS and AIE Scheme). More about these Schemes will be covered in the Course "Operational Dimensions of Education". A major portion of the NFE scheme is run by the State Governments, which set up NFE centres. One component of this scheme provides grants to Voluntary Agencies (VAs) directly from the Central Government for running of NFE centres and a third is for projects of experimental innovative nature by VAs. Apart from the NFE scheme. open learning systems both at school and tertiary levels are also in operation for providing non-formal education.* India Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), State Open Universities (SOUs) and Correspondence Course Institutes (CCIs) offer a large number of programmes to prospective students at tertiary level whereas National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) and State Open Schools provide school education programmes on non-formal basis
SCOPE OF EDUCATION FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF MAJOR FOCUS OF THE STUDY OF KNOWLEDGE
So far, we have discussed how education operates in three major social spaces, namely,
informal, formal, and non-formal. This is one way of understanding the scope of education.
The second way of looking at the scope of education is from the viewpoint of major focus of
the study of knowledge. These are liberal education, professional education, technical
education and vocational education.
Liberal Education:
The study of knowledge in its various forms existed right from the period of Aristotle and
Plato. The ancient civilisations of Greece and Rome had learning centres. There were
universities, which in Latin means corporation, for awarding degrees to students. Abbeys
(monasteries or convents) were self-sustaining institutions meant for women's education
during the medieval period. By the end of the middle Ages, Europe had 80 universities
(Newman, 1998). During this period, liberal arts education was the predominant form of
education in the university system. Liberal arts education was intended to develop the
faculties of the human mind. Gradually, this education came to be known as liberal
education, whose main objective was to develop the powers of intelligence and imagination
without which no intellectual pursuit is possible.
Liberal education has been interpreted in three different ways:
i) From the etymological point of view, liberal means 'freedom’.
ii) From pan sophism point of view, liberal education means education in all
knowledge, the sciences, the arts, etc. 45 Concept and Nature of Education
17
iii) From non-authoritarian point of view, liberal education means education which
respects the autonomy and freedom of the learner, devoid of freedom violating
methods like indoctrination.
There were two components of liberal arts education. One was trivium, which comprised
grammar, rhetoric, and logic. It taught the arts of reading and writing, of listening and
speaking, and of sound thinking. The other part, the quadrivium, consisted of arithmetic,
geometry, astronomy and music. It taught the art of observing, calculation and measurement
and how to apprehend the quantitative aspect of things. Now-a day’s many disciplines in
sciences and social sciences are also included under liberal education as they develop the
power of mind.
From the above discussion, it could be deduced that liberal education is essentially an
intellectual pursuit, which aims at cultivation of human mind. Although liberal education is
always associated with liberal arts and education, there are many areas of learning like sports,
training in virtues etc. where the mind plays a great role in conceptualising and theorising
new ideas. Hence, some elements of liberal education are also present in other areas of
learning other than liberal arts education.
We can conclude that liberal education in the words of Lemann (2004) is defined as:
"Liberal education is best defined with its most literal meaning. It is the education that
liberates, that frees the mind from the constraints of a particular moment and set of
circumstances that permits one to see possibilities that are not immediately apparent, to
understand things in a larger context, to think about situations conceptually and analytically,
to draw upon and muster knowledge when faced with specific situations."
Professional Education:
As opposed to liberal education, which aims at cultivation of human mind and development
of mental faculties, and creation of discipline-based knowledge, professional education deals
with a body of specialised knowledge and application of this knowledge to serve various
requirements of the society. Hence, professional education involves the appli~ation of
theoretical knowledge to various practical social situations. As we know, human beings
require a number of services for their sustenance in the society. Services like education,
health, legal, etc. are badly required by members of the society to lead a successful life.
Professional education, thus, is social service oriented rather than a leisure time intellectual
pursuit. Let us now see what constitutes a profession. One can find a number of definitions to
define a profession. We present one of these definitions below:
"A profession . . . is a field of endeavour whose practitioners have a collective idea of the
good in their work that does not overlap exactly with the self-interest of either themselves or
their employers. Professionals have goals and ideals and purposes having to do with the
history, the techniques and the social role of their field, which rise above the daily demands
of work. They are in discourse with each other about matters broader than just the completion
of the work assignment at hand. Professionals have to deal with complexity in their work.
Professionals do work that has a public purpose."
(Lemann, 2004)
From the above definition and many more definitions, we can find out the following
important features of a profession:
1) A profession renders a crucial social service.
18
2) A profession comprises a specialised body of knowledge, skills and attitude.
3) A profession requires continuous updating in the knowledge base and inservice 46
practical training of the members. Scope of Education.
4) A profession demands that its practitioners form professional groups or association to
enhance and safeguard the interests of group members.
5) A profession expects its members to be guided by a code of ethics and professional
values.
6) A profession ensures that its members grow in their professional careers.
7) A profession enable a professional to make his own judgement in relation to appropriate
practices.
Looking at the features of a profession, certain areas of study can be aptly called professional
education. For example, management education, medical education, legal education, teacher
education, agricultural education are some areas of study in which practice of the body of
knowledge is more important and essential than engaging oneself in the study of knowledge
alone. One can find all the necessary features of a profession with the academic involved in
such professional education. For example, professionals belonging to teacher education do
form professional associations and are governed by a code of ethics and strive to upgrade and
enhance their professional capabilities. We know that there are so many professional
associations in the field of teacher education.. For example, All India Association for Teacher
Educators is a national level professional association for teacher educators. Similarly, All
India Federation for University and College Teachers' Organisation (AIFUCTO) and the
Federation of Central University Teachers' Association (FEDCUTA) are national level
teachers' organisations, which take up the cause of the teaching profession. Similarly, the Bar
Council of India, Indian Council of Technical Education, Medical Council of India, the
Nursing Council of India, etc, are responsible for professional education in their respective
fields. They formulate norms for appointment of teachers, guidelines for design and
development of curriculum, rules for professional development of their peers, etc.
Thus, in this section, we have studied about professional education, which is basically related
to various aspects of social service. But for an individual, the first and foremost concern is to
earn his/her livelihood. Though in traditional societies, and even modem society, many
people are indoctrinated into their parental occupation in order to carve out a livelihood for
them, the knowledge and skills about many of these occupations or vocations are being
provided through institutional mechanisms. The main thrust of our next discussion is on
vocational education.
Vocational Education:
Vocational education was not a part of organised effort earlier. The need for vocational
education was mainly catered to by various informal agencies of education like the family,
the community, etc. But with the advent of industrialisation and its impact on society and on
various aspects of human life, the rage and diversity in vocational education requirements
expanded and this necessity for purposeful and organised effort to provide vocational
education was felt by the society. Hence, vocational education became an institutionalised
activity. Let us then understand the meaning of vocational education.
Defining Vocational Education
Vocational education, in ordinary parlance, refers to education, which prepares a person for a
particular vocation or occupation. In this sense, vocational education refers to education one
19
receives from a variety of informal and formal situations. Although traditionally, an
individual is provided vocational education in his family or community, its scope is limited to
family vocations or vocations available in the community. With industrialisation there
emerged a host of areas where specific vocational skills were needed. In order to train people
in these specialised vocational areas, the society instituted organised educational
programmes, which began to be called vocational 47 Concept and Nature of, Education
education. The following definition of vocational education clarifies the meaning of the term.
Vocational education: "means organised educational programmes that are directly related to
the preparation of individuals for paid or unpaid employment, or for additional preparation
for a career requiring other than a baccalaureate or advanced degree." Google.com (2004)
From the above definition, vocational education means educational programmes, which are
organised to prepare individuals for different kinds of paid or unpaid unemployment.
Sometimes, such programmes may not be aimed at any specific employment but for a career
other than baccalaureate or advanced degree.
Indian Context
In India, the concept of vocational education was first propagated in 1854 by Wood's
Despatch where the suggestion was made of introducing pre-vocational education at the
secondary stage. The Calcutta University Commission (Sadler Commission) of 1917 made
recommendations for the establishment of Intermediate Colleges with Arts, Science,
Medicine and Engineering subjects. The Sapru committee of 1934 recommended a vocational
stream of education in the form of industrial and commercial channels. In 1937, Mahatma
Gandhi also emphasized the importance of manuals and productive work in his Scheme of
Basic Education. The Secondary Education Commission (1 952-53) recommended the
introduction of diversified streams in higher secondary schools such a technical subjects,
commercial subjects, agriculture, fine arts, etc. The Education Commission (1964-66) also
emphasized work experience and vocationalization as part of secondary education, The
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) came out with a document
in 1976 titled, "Higher Secondary Education and its Vocationalization" which contained a
model conceptual frame for implementing the programme for vocational education. A
20
National Working Group was set up in 1985 on vocationalization of education, which
provided wide-ranging recommendations on vocational education. According to the working
group, areas of knowledge such as Engineering, Medicine, Agriculture and Law were -
recognised as professional fields. The programme of education and training to meet Scope of
education the sub-professional manpower needs of all these professions at the secondary and
tertiary levels is referred to as vocational education. Socially Useful Productive Work
(SUPW) and Work Experience (WE) were introduced in most schools to give vocational
orientation to the students. The National Policy on Education (1986) called for the
introduction for a systematic well-planned and rigorously implemented programme of
vocational education in the proposed educational reorganisation. The Acharya Rammurthy
Committee (1990) and Janardana Reddy Committee (1992), which reviewed the status of
vocational education, also recomrnerided WEJSUPW in schools. The UGC also constituted a
Standing Committee on Vocational Educational (SCOVE) to recommend on the
implementation of the vocational education scheme. Of late, vocational education courses are
also offered through open universities and open schools. The Pandit Sunderlal Sharma
Central Institute of Vocational Education (PSSCIVE), a constituent unit of NCERT at
Bhopal, is committed to work on the various aspects of vocational education. There are 150
educational courses in 6 major areas, viz. Agriculture, Business and Commerce, Engineering
and Technology, Health and Paramedical Sciences, Home Science, Humanities and others,
(Kulandai Swami 2004). For vocational education in India, please see Kulandai Swami
(2004). Vocational education is imparted in many areas of vocations. But, broadly they can
be categorised under six major categories and each category covers a few vocations, as per
the Apprentices Act (1 961).
For our understanding, let us look at the following vocational areas and a few related
vocations under each area:
1. Agriculture
- Poultry Farming
- Dairying
- Sericulture
- Floriculture.
- Mechanical Services
- Audio-visual Technician
- Computer Technique
- Tanneries
- Sugar Technology
- Health Worker
- X-ray Technician
- Pharmacist
- Auxiliary Nurse and Midwives 21
- Primary Health Worker
- Food Preservation
- Interior Design
- Child Care and Nutrition
- Knitting Technology
- Pre-School and Crèche Management
- Library and Information Science
- Photography Commercial Act
- Indian Music
- Classical Dance
- Technical education
3. Health and Paramedical
4. Home Science
5. Science and Humanities
Technical and Management Education is one of the more significant components of the Human Resource Development spectrum with great potential for adding value to product and services and for contributing to the national economy and improving quality of life of the people (NPE, 1986). Five years plan have emphasized the role of technical education for national development. Although there was emphasis on the study of technology in the past, the first systematic formal effort was made when the first survey school on the Indian soil started functioning with eight students at Madras in May 1794. Then the first civil engineering college at Roorkee was set up in January 1848 (Gopalan, 2004). But the major landmark came when the Government of India decided on November 1945 to set up All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) to coordinate and supervise technical education above the high school stage. In India, the structure of technical education is basically at four levels. At the fourth level, certificate level programmes under the Craftsmen Training Scheme (CTS) are offered to person in the age group of 14 to 25 years in 41 engineering and 22 no engineering trades in Industrial Training Institutes/Centres in the country. The second level of technical education in the diploma level training is offered in polytechnics. The third level of technical education is offered at the degree level in engineering and technology. The fourth level of technical education constitutes postgraduate and doctoral degrees in engineering and technology
Technical education: Technical and Management Education is one of the more significant components of the Human Resource Development spectrum with great potential for adding value to product and services and for contributing to the national economy and improving quality of life of the people (NPE, 1986). Five years plan have emphasized the role of technical education for national development. Although there was emphasis on the study of technology in the past, the first systematic formal effort was made when the first survey school on the Indian soil started functioning with eight students at Madras in May 1794. Then the first civil engineering college at Roorkee was set up in January 1848 (Gopalan, 2004). But the major landmark came when the Government of India decided on November 1945 to set up All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) to coordinate and supervise technical education above the high school stage. In India, the structure of technical education is basically at four levels. At the fourth level, certificate level programmes under the Craftsmen Training Scheme (CTS) are offered to person in the age group of 14 to 25 years in 41 engineering and 22 no engineering trades in Industrial Training Institutes/Centres in the country. The second level of technical education in the diploma level training is offered in polytechnics. The third level of technical education is offered at the degree level in engineering and technology. The fourth level of technical education constitutes postgraduate and doctoral degrees in engineering and technology